{"id":21074,"date":"2024-03-08T15:13:26","date_gmt":"2024-03-08T04:13:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.anneskyvington.com.au\/?p=21074"},"modified":"2024-04-04T13:16:56","modified_gmt":"2024-04-04T02:16:56","slug":"__trashed","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.anneskyvington.com.au\/__trashed\/","title":{"rendered":"For International Women’s Day:"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

What are the four waves of feminism? And what comes next?<\/h1>\n\n\n\n
I have republished this article by Sharon Crozier-De Rosa from \"The Conversation\" under a Creative Commons license. <\/pre>\n\n\n\n
Sharon Crozier-De Rosa<\/a>, University of Wollongong<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
In Western countries, feminist history is generally packaged as a story of \u201cwaves\u201d. The so-called first wave lasted from the mid-19th century to 1920. The second wave spanned the 1960s to the early 1980s. The third wave began in the mid-1990s and lasted until the 2010s. Finally, some say we are experiencing a fourth wave, which began in the mid-2010s and continues now.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The first person to use \u201cwaves\u201d was journalist Martha Weinman Lear, in her 1968 New York Times article, The Second Feminist Wave<\/a>, demonstrating that the women\u2019s liberation movement was another \u201cnew chapter<\/a> in a grand history of women fighting together for their rights\u201d. She was responding to anti-feminists\u2019 framing of the movement as a \u201cbizarre historical aberration<\/a>\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Some feminists<\/a> criticise the usefulness of the metaphor. Where do feminists who preceded the first wave sit? For instance, Middle Ages feminist writer Christine de Pizan<\/a>, or philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft<\/a>, author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman<\/a> (1792).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Does the metaphor of a single wave overshadow<\/a> the complex variety of feminist concerns and demands? And does this language exclude the non-West<\/a>, for whom the \u201cwaves\u201d story is meaningless?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Despite these concerns, countless feminists continue to use<\/a> \u201cwaves\u201d to explain their position in relation to previous generations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\"\"\/<\/a>
A second-wave International Women\u2019s Day rally in Melbourne, 1975. National Archives of Australia<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
The first wave: from 1848<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The first wave of feminism refers to the campaign for the vote. It began in the United States in 1848 with the Seneca Falls Convention<\/a>, where 300 gathered to debate Elizabeth Cady Stanton\u2019s Declaration of Sentiments, outlining women\u2019s inferior status and demanding suffrage \u2013 or, the right to vote.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
It continued over a decade later, in 1866, in Britain, with the presentation of a suffrage petition<\/a> to parliament.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This wave ended in 1920, when women were granted the right to vote in the US. (Limited women\u2019s suffrage had been introduced in Britain two years earlier, in 1918.) First-wave activists believed once the vote had been won, women could use its power to enact other much-needed reforms, related to property ownership, education, employment and more.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\"\"\/<\/a>
Vida Goldstein. Wikipedia<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
White leaders dominated the movement. They included longtime president of the the International Woman Suffrage Alliance Carrie Chapman Catt<\/a> in the US, leader of the militant Women\u2019s Social and Political Union Emmeline Pankhurst<\/a> in the UK, and Catherine Helen Spence<\/a> and Vida Goldstein<\/a> in Australia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This has tended to obscure the histories of non-white feminists like evangelist and social reformer Sojourner Truth<\/a> and journalist, activist and researcher Ida B. Wells<\/a>, who were fighting on multiple fronts \u2013 including anti-slavery and anti-lynching \u2013  as well as feminism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The second wave: from 1963<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The second wave coincided with the publication of US feminist Betty Friedan\u2019s The Feminine Mystique<\/a> in 1963. Friedan\u2019s \u201cpowerful treatise<\/a>\u201d raised critical interest in issues that came to define the women\u2019s liberation movement until the early 1980s, like workplace equality, birth control and abortion, and women\u2019s education.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Women came together in \u201cconsciousness-raising\u201d groups to share their individual experiences of oppression. These discussions informed and motivated public agitation for gender equality and social change<\/a>. Sexuality and gender-based violence were other prominent second-wave concerns.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Australian feminist Germaine Greer wrote The Female Eunuch<\/a>, published in 1970, which urged women to<\/a> \u201cchallenge the ties binding them to gender inequality and domestic servitude\u201d \u2013 and to ignore repressive male authority by exploring their sexuality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Successful lobbying saw the establishment of refuges for women and children fleeing domestic violence and rape. In Australia, there were groundbreaking political appointments, including the world\u2019s first Women\u2019s Advisor to a national government (Elizabeth Reid<\/a>). In 1977, a Royal Commission on Human Relationships<\/a> examined families, gender and sexuality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amid these developments, in 1975, Anne Summers published Damned Whores and God\u2019s Police<\/a>, a scathing historical critique of women\u2019s treatment in patriarchal Australia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
At the same time as they made advances, so-called women\u2019s libbers managed to anger earlier feminists with their distinctive claims to radicalism. Tireless campaigner Ruby Rich<\/a>, who was president of the Australian Federation of Women Voters from 1945 to 1948, responded by declaring the only difference was her generation had called their movement \u201cjustice for women<\/a>\u201d, not \u201cliberation\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Like the first wave, mainstream second-wave activism proved largely irrelevant to non-white women, who faced oppression on intersecting gendered and racialised grounds. African American feminists produced their own critical texts, including bell hooks\u2019 Ain\u2019t I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism<\/a> in 1981 and Audre Lorde\u2019s Sister Outsider<\/a> in 1984.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The third wave: from 1992<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The third wave was announced in the 1990s. The term is popularly attributed to Rebecca Walker, daughter of African American feminist activist and writer Alice Walker<\/a> (author of The Color Purple<\/a>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Aged 22, Rebecca proclaimed in a 1992 Ms. magazine article<\/a>: \u201cI am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Third wavers didn\u2019t think gender equality had been more or less achieved. But they did share post-feminists<\/a>\u2019 belief that their foremothers\u2019 concerns and demands were obsolete. They argued women\u2019s experiences were now shaped by very different<\/a> political, economic, technological and cultural conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The third wave has been described as \u201can individualised feminism<\/a> that can not exist without diversity, sex positivity and intersectionality\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Intersectionality, coined<\/a> in 1989 by African American legal scholar Kimberl\u00e9 Crenshaw, recognises that people can experience intersecting layers of oppression due to race, gender, sexuality, class, ethnicity and more. Crenshaw notes this was a \u201clived experience\u201d before it was a term.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In 2000, Aileen Moreton Robinson\u2019s Talkin\u2019 Up to the White Woman: Indigenous Women and Feminism<\/a> expressed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women\u2019s frustration that white feminism did not adequately address the legacies of dispossession, violence, racism, and sexism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Certainly, the third wave accommodated kaleidoscopic views<\/a>. Some scholars claimed it \u201cgrappled with fragmented interests and objectives\u201d \u2013 or micropolitics. These included ongoing issues such as sexual harassment in the workplace and a scarcity of women in positions of power.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The third wave also gave birth to the Riot Grrrl<\/a> movement and \u201cgirl power\u201d. Feminist punk bands like Bikini Kill<\/a> in the US, Pussy Riot<\/a> in Russia and Australia\u2019s Little Ugly Girls<\/a> sang about issues like homophobia, sexual harassment, misogyny, racism, and female empowerment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Riot Grrrl\u2019s manifesto<\/a> states \u201cwe are angry at a society that tells us Girl = Dumb, Girl = Bad, Girl = Weak\u201d. \u201cGirl power\u201d was epitomised by Britain\u2019s more sugary, phenomenally popular Spice Girls, who were accused of peddling \u201c\u2018diluted feminism\u2019 to the masses<\/a>\u201d. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/tAbhaguKARw?wmode=transparent&start=0 Riot Grrrrl sang about issues like homophobia, sexual harassment, misogyny and racism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The fourth wave: 2013 to now<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The fourth wave is epitomised by \u201cdigital or online feminism<\/a>\u201d which gained currency in about 2013<\/a>. This era is marked by mass online mobilisation. The fourth wave generation is connected via new communication technologies in ways that were not previously possible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Online mobilisation has led to spectacular street demonstrations, including the #metoo movement. #Metoo was first founded by Black activist Tarana Burke<\/a> in 2006, to support survivors of sexual abuse. The hashtag #metoo then went viral during the 2017 Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse scandal<\/a>. It was used at least 19 million times<\/a> on Twitter (now X) alone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In January 2017, the Women\u2019s March<\/a> protested the inauguration of the decidedly misogynistic Donald Trump as US president. Approximately 500,000<\/a> women marched in Washington DC, with demonstrations held simultaneously in 81 nations<\/a> on all continents of the globe, even Antarctica.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In 2021, the Women\u2019s March4Justice<\/a> saw some 110,000 women rallying at more than 200 events across Australian cities and towns, protesting workplace sexual harassment and violence against women, following high-profile cases like that of Brittany Higgins, revealing sexual misconduct<\/a> in the Australian houses of parliament.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Given the prevalence of online connection, it is not surprising fourth wave feminism has reached across geographic regions. The Global Fund for Women reports<\/a> that #metoo transcends national borders. In China, it is, among other things, #\u7c73\u5154 (translated as \u201crice bunny<\/a>\u201d, pronounced as \u201cmi tu\u201d). In Nigeria, it\u2019s #Sex4Grades<\/a>. In Turkey, it\u2019s #Uykular\u0131n\u0131zKa\u00e7s\u0131n<\/a> (\u201cmay you lose sleep\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In an inversion of the traditional narrative of the Global North leading the Global South in terms of feminist \u201cprogress\u201d, Argentina\u2019s \u201cGreen Wave<\/a>\u201d has seen it decriminalise abortion, as has Colombia. Meanwhile, in 2022, the US Supreme Court overturned historic abortion legislation<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Whatever the nuances, the prevalence of such highly visible gender protests have led some feminists, like Red Chidgey<\/a>, lecturer in Gender and Media at King\u2019s College London, to declare that feminism has transformed from \u201ca dirty word and publicly abandoned politics\u201d to an ideology sporting \u201ca new cool status\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Where to now?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
How do we know when to pronounce the next \u201cwave\u201d? (Spoiler alert: I have no answer.) Should we even continue to use the term \u201cwaves\u201d?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The \u201cwave\u201d framework was first used to demonstrate feminist continuity and solidarity. However, whether interpreted as disconnected chunks of feminist activity or connected periods of feminist activity and inactivity, represented by the crests and troughs of waves, some believe it encourages binary thinking that produces intergenerational antagonism<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Back in 1983, Australian writer and second-wave feminist Dale Spender, who died last year, confessed her fear<\/a> that if each generation of women did not know they had robust histories of struggle and achievement behind them, they would labour under the illusion they\u2019d have to develop feminism anew. Surely, this would be an overwhelming prospect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What does this mean for \u201cwaves\u201d in 2024 and beyond?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
To build vigorous varieties of feminism going forward, we might reframe the \u201cwaves\u201d. We need to let emerging generations of feminists know they are not living in an isolated moment, with the onerous job of starting afresh. Rather, they have the momentum created by generations upon generations of women to build on.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Sharon Crozier-De Rosa<\/a>, Professor, University of Wollongong<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
 A REMINDER NOTE FROM THIS  BLOG EDITOR:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
I have republished this article from \"The Conversation\" under a Creative Commons license. <\/pre>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
What are the four waves of feminism? And what comes next? I have republished this article by Sharon Crozier-De Rosa from “The Conversation” under a Creative Commons license. Sharon Crozier-De Rosa, University of Wollongong In Western countries, feminist history is generally packaged as a story of \u201cwaves\u201d. The so-called first wave lasted from the mid-19th century […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":21076,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"off","_et_pb_old_content":"","_et_gb_content_width":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[4237],"tags":[4368,4366,4365,4363,4369,4364,4367,4361],"class_list":["post-21074","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-writing-topics","tag-indigenous-feminist-issues","tag-the-female-eunuch-by-germaine-greer","tag-the-feminine-mystique","tag-the-first-wave-of-womens-liberation","tag-the-fourth-wave-of-feminism","tag-the-second-feminist-wave","tag-the-third-feminist-wave","tag-the-waves-of-feminism"],"yoast_head":"\nFor International Women's Day: - The Art of Creative Writing<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.anneskyvington.com.au\/__trashed\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"For International Women's Day: - The Art of Creative Writing\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"What are the four waves of feminism? And what comes next? I have republished this article by Sharon Crozier-De Rosa from "The Conversation" under a Creative Commons license. Sharon Crozier-De Rosa, University of Wollongong In Western countries, feminist history is generally packaged as a story of \u201cwaves\u201d. 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I have republished this article by Sharon Crozier-De Rosa from \"The Conversation\" under a Creative Commons license. Sharon Crozier-De Rosa, University of Wollongong In Western countries, feminist history is generally packaged as a story of \u201cwaves\u201d. 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